By Ryan Mach and Eva Ross
Introduction
Buddhism originated in India through the 5th Century B.C.E. following the life of Siddhartha Guatama, the original Buddha. Born of royal descent, Guatama abandoned his home life in favor mendicancy, asceticism, and meditation to find nirvana, “a transcendent state in which there is neither suffering, desire, nor sense of self, and the subject is released from the effects of karma and the cycle of death and rebirth.” In time, the Buddha’s teachings in the pursuit of nirvana grew to be widely practiced and Buddhism was integrated into Asian culture. Although there is much to unpack regarding the religious intricacies of Buddhism, this publication focuses on its architectural influence across Eastern Asia resulting in the development of the pagoda, and how the pagoda later spread throughout the world.
Part 1: The Stupa & Buddhism’s Spread to Eastern Asia:
To understand the Pagoda’s spread through historic and modern times, the structure’s religious, architectural, and geographic evolution must first be deconstructed. In Buddhism, it is cited that the Buddha found enlightenment meditating under the canopy of a bodhi (fig) tree, a concept which was mimicked in the creation of the The Great Stupa at Sanji (Example 1), and other ones like it. Also known as “The Buddhist Monument in Sanchi,” the site is located in the Raisin District of India and stands at 54 feet tall with a diameter of 124 feet. This specific stupa features a foundation made of stone, with a stone dome constructed above. As is the nature of a dome, the Stupa’s height and diameter share an inverse relationship. This is important to remember as we eventually connect the stupa and pagoda’s architectural elements. Dating back to the 3rd Century B.C., the stone is understandably worn yielding a dusty mix of brown and red for coloring. Surrounding the Stupa’s foundation and dome, there is a fence made of wood and stone with a similar light red dusty coloring. Another note on stupas is that their concealed domes were used to house spiritually significant objects potentially including the Buddha’s hair follicles and fingernails. This exemplifies how the practice of Buddhism was tied to physical space, a theme that is later observed in pagodas as well.
Before Buddhist structures with spiritual significance transformed from buildings like the stupa into ones like the pagoda, Buddhism first had to spread out of India into China. This growth continued to the rest of Eastern Asia, from 206 B.C. to 220 A.D. as discussed by Tansen Sen in his chapter titled The Spread of Buddhism to China, a Re-examination of the Buddhist Interactions Between Ancient India and China. Through the chapter, Sen credits much of Buddhism’s historic spread to the Han Dynasty’s expansion of merchant networks. Within these networks, not only were goods and services exchanged, but cultures were blended as well. Along these networks, Indian Buddhist Monks now had the means to share their manuscripts, trinkets, and beliefs across a much larger geographic region. As Sen describes, this occurred in a ‘protracted’ manner, meaning Buddhism’s integration into Chinese culture was a slow, but steady process. Although Sen’s essay mainly focuses on the mechanics of Buddhism’s expansion, this publication is concerned with the fact that Buddhism spread to Eastern Asia before the Pagoda’s development. With that considered, we make the claim that the pagodas’ development is not tied to one single region, but rather Buddhism as a whole. So, the historic development and spread of the pagoda can best be explained by the religious spread of Buddhism. Now that the historic spread of Buddhism is understood, and that the importance of space and structure within Buddhism has been demonstrated, the pagoda’s architectural evolution can be examined.
Part 2: From Stupa to Pagoda
As Buddhism grew, so did the prominence of associated structures. Dating back to what Sen describes as the start of Buddhism’s North East expansion (roughly 230 B.C.E.), the Mahabodhi Temple was built (Example 2). This temple, with a name best translated to the “Great Awakening Temple,” is located in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India, where the Buddha was believed to have achieved enlightenment. The structure is noted as a “Shikhara Tower,” which is the Sanskrit word for mountain peak. The temple’s highest point is 180 feet above ground, and its surrounding complex occupies roughly 12 acres. The temple’s towers get smaller as the structure gets taller, which is similar to previous and coming examples in this publication.The main tower has four walls which lean into one another forming a style of architecture similar to that of a pyramid. Notably, the four sides do not meet at the top in a point, but they are cut off early with a roof, and a round Stupa atop the roof. In its current condition, the temple has a dry gray finish, although its presentation does not seem worn. Going up the structure’s side are engravings of arches likely mimicking the bodhi tree the Buddha found enlightenment under. The stupa which tops the temple features engravings including layers, arches, and ribbons. Importantly, the Mahabodhi Temple has undergone many renovations undoubtedly changing the structure’s presentation. This may have also introduced architectural bias as a British rule was present during the time of the restoration. Nevertheless, the Mahabodhi Temple beautifully exemplifies Buddhism’s architectural growth; it is as though the temple’s stupa grew a tower underneath demonstrating the religion’s rise in prominence through the historic world.
In Qinghua Guo’s chapter “From Tower to Pagoda: Structural and Technological Transition,” he discusses the architectural transition from towers to multi-leveled pagodas which occurred in ancient China. During this time, structural innovation yielded joints which were utilized to support separate floors and large items. Specifically for the pagoda, these joints allowed for floors to support large items intended for Buddhist practices, such as large Buddha statues as referenced in Example 3’s discussion. Guo’s chapter touches on how the block-and-bracket architectural design allowed for overhanging roofs with upturned eaves, a trademark of pagodas. Through the rest of his reading, Guo highlights the artistic significance of pagodas in detail, but this publication is mainly concerned with his finding that the innovation of block-and-bracket architecture allowed for the pagoda to evolve from tower structures into multi-tiered pagodas.
With the architectural innovation necessary for pagodas discovered, countless were built with religious intent across China and Eastern Asia. One of these pagodas was the Fogong Pagoda (Example 3) located in King County, Shuozhou, Shanxi, China. Constructed in 1056, the Fogong Pagoda simultaneously demonstrates the architectural capabilities possessed during the Liao Dynasty period while highlighting the culture’s devotion to Buddhism. The nearly 221 feet tall wooden structure has five levels, each separated by overhanging roofs, an iconic feature of all pagodas. Notably, there are five overhanging roofs protruding from each level and one complete roof across the top with a centered sorin piercing the sky above. Internally, the pagoda has a double core octangular support structure. The first level, which is mounted upon a 13ft stone platform for additional support, is larger than the rest with reinforced walls and a dramatically large sized statue of the Buddha emphasizing the building’s religious importance. The following levels, which are connected by stairs filling the double core’s gaps, are roughly half the height of the first level and maintain smaller renditions of the Buddha as well. The top layer is likely to include small trinkets relevant to Buddhism, similar to the small trinkets which may have been found within a stupa. Seen from the exterior, the Pagoda’s levels have patios wrapping the structure on all levels other than the first. The structure’s patios and walls possess a dry clay color which was likely a more pronounced red at the time of construction. The overhanging roofs and top roof’s color is a shade between light brown and dry charcoal.
Similar to the Fongong Pagoda, the Iron Pagoda (Example 4) is another Chinese Buddhist structure built just seven years prior in 1049. The 186.5 foot tall pagoda is constructed out of brick, and has 13 layers each separated by a slightly overhanging roof with upturned eaves. Like all other pagodas, as the structure gets taller it becomes increasingly narrow. From a distance, The Iron Pagoda displays a rusty brown finish. Notably, the overhanging roofs maintain a darker shade of brown while the layers’ walls are slightly lighter. Upon looking closer, small Buddhist motifs cover the pagoda demonstrating its spiritual importance.
The Five Temple Pagoda (Example 5) exemplifies direct architectural aspects taken from India into China. Located in the Dongcheng District of Beijing, China. The foundation of the base is 55 feet high, with the five pagodas rising out of the base. The central pagoda reaches higher than the others and has 13 eaves, compared to the 11 eaves on the four pagodas on the corners. The temple is made of white marble, and due to the more than 500 years of oxidation of flecks of iron in the stone, the structure now has a pale orange hue. Notably, this structure drew direct inspiration from the Mahabodhi Temple. As previously mentioned, the Mahabodhi Buddhist temple, also known as the “Great Awakening Temple,” as it is located in the location where the Buddha was alleged to reach enlightenment. It is also commonly referred to as the Temple of True Awakening, or the Temple of Great Righteous Awakening. The most distinct feature of the Mahabodhi temple which was incorporated into The Five Pagoda Temple is the main tower structure surrounded by four smaller towers all one one base, known as the throne. This is known as the pagoda style of the diamond throne in Buddhist terms. The complex of structures had repairs done in 1761, and then was looted and burned to the ground in the late Qing Dynasty (roughly 1860) by the Anglo-French Allied Armies, and then again in 1900 by the Eight-Power Allied Force.
Another pagoda which demonstrates the cultural spread and architectural development of Buddhism beyond both India and China is the Learning Temple of the Flourishing Law (Example 6) located in Ikaruga, Japan. Dated to the Asuka Period in the 7th century, this Buddhist complex featuring two temples demonstrates the reach of Buddhism’s spread, and similar architectural themes already discussed. The temple features a wooden hall on the left, or Kondo, and a pagoda on the right. The temple has great spiritual significance as it was built in honor of Yakushi Nyorai, the Buddha responsible for healing. Although the entire complex has great religious significance, this publication will focus purely on the architecture of the pagoda. The pagoda is lifted on a stone foundation and has 5 distinct levels. The core of the structure is square, and is relatively small compared to the area of its overhanging roofs on each level. Similar to the Fongong Pagoda, the pagoda gets narrower as it gets taller, and also features a sorin on the top.
From the discussed readings and examples above, it is clear that in historic times the development of pagodas can be tied to the spread of Buddhism through a period of architectural advancement. In contrast, however, modern times have witnessed the pagoda’s global spread fueled by commercialization and entertainment value. In The Cultural Appropriation of Buddha in American Advertisement, Jiemen Bao and William Willis review how commercialization brought the image of the Buddha to America due to advertisement opportunity. Their research found that through the first half of the 20th century US brands had rarely used the Buddha for advertisement. As mindfulness movements began to rise, however, countless registered businesses across the country began using the Buddha’s image to help sell their products in the US. Although it is not a perfect reflection of the pagoda’s expansion, Willis and Bao’s paper serves as a demonstration of how cultural spread can be fueled by different sources. At one point in time the Buddha’s image was largely spread by Buddhist Monks, and now it is spread by businessmen and women. As the following examples demonstrate, this same phenomenon can be observed in the construction of pagodas.
Part 3: The Modern Spread of Pagodas
One pagoda that does not hold religious meaning is the Pagoda at Reading Pennsylvania (Example 7), built by William A. Witman from 1907 to 1908. This was originally intended to be a luxury resort and restaurant, but due to lack of funding, this idea was never made a reality. This is a seven story building reaching to 72 feet, made of wood, stone, brick, glass, and more. Additionally, throughout World War II, Anti-Japanese sentiment resulted in the partial deconstruction of the structure, which was eventually repaired. Currently, the building is being used as a hotel. This building mimics many of the pagoda’s traditional elements such as the multi-tiered structure with eaves that are overhanging and upturned, the strong square foundation, and the narrowing size as the structure ascends. However, it is also clear to see where this structure has been westernized. Some examples of this include the massive chimney shooting out of the structure, the LED lights covering the eves, glass windows, and the fact that this building is used for a commercial purpose. Because of these differences, this modern ‘pagoda’ strays so far away from the original structures not only from an architectural perspective, but also from a spiritual one. The original intention of the pagoda was never for it to be used commercially, but for religious means. This structure, along with the ones that follow, represent the modern appropriation of not only Buddhist themes, but specifically the pagoda and how it has been reinvented for commercial use.
Another example that highlights the pagoda’s commercial spread is the Oyster Pail Red Pagoda (Example 8) which most Americans are familiar with. Almost every time people in the US order what they might consider to be ‘Chinese’ food take out, something will come in one of these pails. Not only are the contents most likely not authentically Chinese, but neither is the structure nor the image. Everything about this container actually originates in the United States. The origami design of the boxes was patented and popularized in Chicago during 1890, and the iconic red pagoda was actually first used in San Francisco in the early 20th century. This is a prime example of Buddhism being so far taken out of context due to the commercialization of its imagery. Although this usage of the pagoda is intended for marketing purposes, other pagodas have been created for beautification purposes as shown in the following example.
During the 18th century, China and the West saw a large increase in trade causing a new Western interest in Chinese culture. This is exactly what inspired Sir William Chambers in his gift to Princess Augusta, The Great Pagoda at Kew Gardens (Example 9). Built in 1761, and later restored in 2018, this building is located in Southwest London, standing 10 stories high, reaching 163 feet, and built from wood, stone, lead, and tile. Similarities to traditional pagodas include the decrease in size as the structure ascends, the overhanging roofs with curved eaves, and a strong octangular foundation. Some of the differences include the materials used to build the structure, such as the lead on the roofs, the decorations including winged dragons, and the history of the building in that it was intended as a gift to beautify the garden and nothing more. Although the pagoda is most definitely a thing of beauty, this strays from the original intention of the pagoda to be used for Buddhist practices.
Conclusion
Although the Pagoda’s development is still largely debated among scholars, a few ideas stand clear. The pagoda, which originally developed in India as stupas used to house Buddhist relics, spread throughout East Asia as Buddhism flourished. Architectural innovations, such as the block-and-bracket design, allowed Buddhist structures to evolve from single-domed stupas to multi-tiered pagodas. Despite the architectural shifts, the religious utility of Buddhist structures remained steadfast through this era of innovation. In modern times, however, the pagoda’s use has taken on new meaning as a tool for marketing and entertainment outside of its original intent. This comparison between the historic and modern spread of pagodas highlights the complex relationship between cultural integration, appropriation, and the evolving purpose of historical structures.
Bibliography:
Bao, Jiemen, and William Willis. “The Cultural Appropriation of Buddha in American Advertisements.” View of The Cultural Appropriation of Buddha in American Advertisements | Journal of Global Buddhism, July 2022. https://www.globalbuddhism.org/article/view/1992/2807
China.org.cn. “Five Pagoda Temple (Vajrasana Pagoda at Zhenjue Temple).” Five Pagoda Temple . Accessed May 12, 2024. http://www.china.org.cn/travel/cultural_relics/2012-04/09/content_25875563.htm.
Five Pagoda Temple, Di Luo. Photograph. Beijing, China, November 2017.
Fongong Pagoda. April 2024. Photograph. Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagoda_of_Fogong_Temple.
Great Pagoda, Kew Gardens. November 13, 2023. Photograph. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pagoda,_Kew_Gardens#/media/File:Great_Pagoda_at_Kew_Gardens_2.jpg.
Guo, Qinghua. “From Tower to Pagoda: Structural and Technological Transition.” Aζ South Asia, July 31, 2021. https://architexturez.net/doc/az-cf-220675.
Hōryū-ji. March 25, 2024. Photograph. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Dry%C5%AB-ji.
Iron Pagoda. December 2023. Photograph. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Pagoda.
Mahabodhi Temple. May 2024. Photograph. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple.
Sen, Tansen. “The Spread of Buddhism to China, a Re-examination of the Buddhist Interactions Between Ancient India and China, July 2012. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258128883_The_Spread_of_Buddhism_to_China_A_Re-examination_of_the_Buddhist_Interactions_between_Ancient_India_and_China.
Oyster Pail Pagoda . Photograph. New London, Connecticut , May 2024. New London, Connecticut .
Pagoda Reading, Pennsylvania. June 24, 2023. Photograph. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagoda_(Reading,_Pennsylvania).
The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Raisen district, MP. May 2024. Photograph. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanchi#:~:text=The%20%22Great%20Stupa%22%20at%20Sanchi,in%20the%203rd%20century%20BCE.
