Overview
Over the course of time in Japanese history, there were a lot of external influences on shaping the identities of Japanese culture and way of living. One of the areas that faced major change in its purpose and representation was the essence of the Japanese garden. As a person interested in studying landscape architecture and art history, I was driven to explore the evolution of Japanese landscape gardens over the course of time and how the changes have influenced perspectives on religion, daily activities and creating an identity for Japanese people. The evolution of Japanese gardens not only signifies its impact on understanding Japan-ness but have also contributed towards defining and understanding the philosophy of Buddhism and how humans can utilize Zen gardens as a medium to attain enlightenment. The goal of this project is to explore how the natural elements have played a crucial role in shaping the identity and perspective on Japanese gardens throughout the history of Japan. Moreover, this project also explores how the development and understanding of Japanese gardens using actual natural elements have later shifted to using only symbolisms of natural elements to define the new purpose of the garden connecting with Zen Buddhism.
Japanese gardens have evolved in many interesting ways. Traditional design first turned to the concept of creating a garden as a form of wealth. Hence, over time, the focus shifted from being used as a fulfilling desire and luxurious asset to appreciating nature and its natural spirit for connecting humans to heavenly paradise with strong belief in a pond garden offering hope of salvation and entrance into the western paradise of Amitabha Buddha after death. This was also due to the belief that the apocalypse was calculated to arrive in the middle of the 11th century and Buddhist practitioners increased in number. Therefore, the garden design came to be modeled on the image of Jōdo or pure land. The concept of pure land Buddhism taught that the pure land of Amitabha Buddha was accessible to all faithful regular people, which meant that those who did not have access to reading or writing could also practice with sincere mindset in order to attain the paradise of Amitabha Buddha. The concept of a garden with a pond and a temple within the landscape became a place of consolation and hope for people subjected to uncertainty and danger in their daily lives. However, in the turbulent social conditions of the medieval age, many Japanese turned to Zen Buddhism as the sole hope of salvation and strength. With the shift of landscape garden design, it also influenced the ideas in defining what Japanese gardens meant for the people.
Thus, I will be using visual examples that range from the Heian period (794-1186) to the Edo period (1615-1868), comparing and contrasting their distinctive characteristics to understand how the shift in the use of natural elements have contributed to the creating an identity for Japan-ness and garden design. For instance, I will be using Higashi SanjoDono garden which is one of the oldest Shinden-style gardens that uses luxurious ponds and islands to harmonize with the adjacent buildings. My second example is Phoenix Hall of the Byodo-in by Fujiwara no Yorimichi where the main shift of the garden from being luxurious to religious concept takes place. The third example I will be using is Saiho-ji garden in which the well known Buddhist priest Muso Soseki breaks the standard and norm of designing gardens as only visually appealing landscapes. During this period, he enters the stage of representing the garden as the direct and crude face of nature. To further understand this new concept of garden designing, the second stage of my project focuses on the dry landscape garden. I will be using Ryoanji rock garden, Daisen-in garden and the garden of Shoden-ji temple which all explores the use of minimalist and abstract natural elements to symbolize the actual nature such as waterfall, flood, island and small ponds. Interestingly, continuing the context of applying Zen Buddhism in the process of designing gardens, the dry landscape gardening is also focused on capturing the essence of meditation and incorporating the idea of finding ones’ self within these plain and abstract natural forms.
In the context of Japanese dry landscape gardens, the focus is on stone revered for its own sake, for the pleasure and understanding derived from simply being in the presence of rocks and contemplating them, rather than for their usefulness as tools or raw materials. Therefore, all these visual sources need to be viewed as a group in order to understand the sequential change in the purpose of the garden and natural elements; how those factors have played a crucial role in shaping the Japanese identity through their own unique understanding of natural elements, spirits and connection with Buddhist religion.
In order to successfully work on my project, I looked at academic texts other than the ones we discussed in class. To list, few of them are “The Garden Art of Japan” by Masao Hayajawa, “Reading ZEN in the Rocks” by François Berthier and “Secret Teachings in the Art of Japanese Gardens” by David A.Slawson. I chose these textual sources because they delve into the philosophical importance of garden design and explore the aspects of the Japanese garden experience in terms of scenic effects, reproduction of appealing landscape forms, sensory effects, spatial quality and cultural values. More importantly, the Japanese garden is shown to be like a landscape painting in three dimensions. The textual sources emphasize that these natural elements used in the landscape are not ‘miniature’ but rather a sensory manipulation of texture, color, perspective, and form on a multiplicity of levels which are designed to attract the eye of the observer and translate one’s perceptual system into a belief and personal values. Hence, the textual sources also trace the role of Shinto and Zen Buddhism that played a significant role in the evolution of the Japanese garden.
Traditional Pond Gardens:
Figure 1
Title: Model of Higashi SanjoDono
Date: 9th century, Heiankyo Period (794-1185)
Location: Heiankyo (Ancient Kyoto)
Size: about 120m square (one cho)
Material: Sand, wood, water, shrubbery
Photo Credit: Nara City Tourist Association, the Museum of Kyoto
The model of Higashi SanjoDono in Heiankyo is one of the last existing Shinden-Zukuri style garden types, thus currently there is no existing shinden-zukuri style garden that retains the original state. The use of this example is important to understand the origin and purpose of garden design.
The Fujiwara clan, known for their aristocracy, established their authority over power, art, and culture by embracing distinct Japanese concepts. Residing in opulent residences constructed in the Shinden-Zukuri architectural style, these elites initially employed ponds for cooling purposes in Kyoto’s sweltering climate. However, they elevated the use of ponds by incorporating them into larger landscapes, creating areas where boats could leisurely navigate, offering various visually appealing perspectives within the garden, especially during beautiful seasons. The ponds, as depicted in the image, were complemented by gracefully curved islands linked by both curved and straight bridges, which were designed to allow boats to pass underneath. This elaborate pond garden’s layout was intricately tied to the Shinden-Zukuri style mansions typically featuring expansive courtyard gardens and overseeing grand ponds. These courtyards served as spaces for formal events like poetry contests and festivals, thus were devoid of extensive planting. Consequently, using natural elements like water, tree, and other plants to derive luxurious aesthetic pleasure marked one of the initial stages in the evolution of garden design within this context.
Figure 2
Title: Ho-o-do (Phoenix Hall), Byodo-In, Uji
Designer: Yorimichi Fujiwara
Date: ca.1053, Heian Period
Location: Kyoto Prefecture, Japan
Photo Credit: UMass Boston, Academic Images, Artstor
During this period, the purpose and concept of the garden shifted from being a luxurious visual aesthetic landscape to using nature’s spirit to connect with god and religious beliefs. This shift is mainly as a reaction against the metaphysical excesses of the philosophical schools. The shift in understanding the natural element is a movement towards ‘Pure Land Buddhism’ which believed in rebirth in Amitabha Buddha’s western paradise through devoted chants and practices. Since it did not require any skills or knowledge, the practices were accessible to all laypeople which popularized the concept. The Phoenix Hall of Byodo-In temple is one of the sole examples to understanding the first shift in garden purpose and it is also one of the best examples of remains from the glorious Fujiwara Regent Period.
One of the main features of the hall is its central island on a large pond which looks as if it is an elegant palace on the pond in the Buddhist Pure Land. The use of a natural element, water, plays a crucial role in understanding the purpose of a garden in this period. The pond is placed right in front of the temple, hence reflecting the beautiful and magnificent hall of Amitabha Buddha and towers in the pond giving people a view of heaven and sensation of being in the Pure Land. This almost perfect symmetry was intentionally designed and more interestingly, the pond can be seen with lotus flowers which are often associated with the essence of life or rebirth as the lotus comes out from the muddy pond and blooms beautifully on the surface of the water. Similarly, water is also symbolized as a life giver, purity and medicinal in Buddhist context which clearly connects with the concept used by Byodo-In temple pond garden. Thus, the natural element, water, which reflects the heavenly paradise of Amitabha Buddha on the earth, is being prayed to as a form of medium to attain Pure Land or the paradise of Amitabha Buddha after death.
Figure 3: Pond Garden, lower garden of Saiho-ji.
Figure 4: Rock arrangement in the upper garden, Saiho-ji
Title: Saiho-ji Garden or the ‘Moss’ Temple
Re-designed by: Muso Soseki
Date: Commissioned in 1339
Location: Kyoto, Japan
Photo Credit: Masao Hayakawa
The Saiho-ji garden earned the nickname “moss temple” due to its abundant ground cover comprising various types of moss. Muso Soseki was commissioned in 1339 to transform the Jōdo-sect temple into a Zen temple. While the original structure of the converted temple no longer exists, the pond’s outline and the arrangement of the dry landscape still hint at the garden’s overall design. Notably, Saiho-ji garden stands out for its division into the lower golden pond garden and the upper rock garden within the same grounds. This redesign marked a departure from the previous Shinden-style residential garden and Jōdo style temple layout. The pond garden boasts flourishing cherry trees, offering a comforting, optimistic, and aesthetically pleasing environment. Unlike traditional flat pond gardens, Saiho-ji extended its pond into the natural landscape, using the existing topography rather than altering it to fit a predetermined garden type. Consequently, this approach resulted in creating narrow paths encircling the pond, transforming Saiho-ji garden into a walking garden where visitors could connect with nature and appreciate the constantly changing scenery as they strolled, unlike Shinden-Zukuri and Jōdo style gardens, which were typically observed from inside buildings or from excursion boats floating on pond.
The pond garden of Saiho-ji, although it boldly incorporated dynamism coming from living organisms surrounding water, Muso eliminated all of them in the upper part of the rock garden. What was left was more direct, the crude face of nature whose beauty was condensed in the rocks. This rock arrangement garden is a revolutionary example that led to the Zen garden in the later years.
In the rock garden, rather than utilizing genuine natural elements, the arrangement of rocks serves to symbolize and mimic natural landscapes, offering aesthetic delight to observe in a more abstract manner. This dry landscape garden, devoid of any actual water, employs spatial composition that evokes the auditory sensation of a powerful deluge. It’s representation of a waterfall through symbolism is more forceful than those seen in reality, while its dry stream appears swifter than natural counterparts. The intentional absence of water in this rock garden becomes a significant feature. Unlike prior garden designs where water played a pivotal role, the rock garden’s lack of water encourages visitors to introspect, connecting with nature within themselves. However, the design’s essence extends beyond a mere appreciation of nature. While the lower pond garden aimed for visual allure, the upper raw and rock garden symbolized Muso’s spiritual triumph over worldly suffering. Positioned on the hill, this rock garden stands in stark contrast to the pond garden. While the latter radiates happiness with its idealized beauty featuring flourishing cherry trees, the upper garden embodies a more severe and disciplined philosophy. Through its structure and arrangement, the rock garden prioritizes the evocation and placement of human emotions over natural form. At Saiho-ji garden, one can observe two sharply differing perspectives on the human condition in close proximity: the deeply ascetic viewpoint of Zen, which aimed to conceal emotions and transform them into internal energy through strict discipline to foster a resilient and lofty spirit, as manifested in the upper garden, and the more comforting, optimistic, and aesthetically pleasing outlook portrayed by the pond garden.
Dry Landscape, Rock Garden/Zen Garden:
Figure 5
Title: Rock Garden, Ryoan-ji Temple
Designer: Hosokawa Katsumoto
Date: late 15th-16th century, Muromachi period
Location: Kyoto, Japan
Material: Rock, mosses, gravel, sand
Photo Credit: Artstor library
In Japanese garden design, nature is often linked to a nurturing ‘mother’, a source of solace and creativity, guiding life in harmony with its principles. Evolving from earlier rock garden concepts, symbolism in portraying natural elements emphasizes aligning life with nature’s essence. The allure of dry landscapes relies significantly on the influence of ‘abstraction’ and ‘vacant space’. Gardens like Ryoan-ji temple draw from monochromatic paintings, leaving areas unadorned, perhaps with white sand or green moss, allowing these empty spaces to stimulate imagination. These zones serve as open canvases, inviting observers to craft their own scenes.
The Ryoan-ji temple garden features 15 grayish rocks of various sizes arranged on light gray gravel. Introducing a hint of muted green to the otherwise neutral palette, moss encircles the rock bases, resembling forests at the foot of tall mountains. None of the rocks possess outstanding individual traits, instead, they collectively enhance each other’s significance, creating a seamlessly balanced and harmonious view. As typical for dry landscape gardening, there is no use of water and other vegetation but interestingly, the Ryoan-ji garden also rejects all figurative shapes like rocks that are arranged to symbolize waterfall, bridge or boats which we saw in Saiho-ji rock garden. Therefore, the garden is by contrast, very focused on emphasizing emptiness, stillness and nothingness, which were also a significant part of understanding Zen Buddhism. Unlike Jōdo Buddhism religion, Zen is rather a form of thought, or better, a mode of thinking that gives rise to a certain way of acting. Zen ideology dictates that supreme consciousness isn’t achieved through analytical study of doctrines. Instead, direct intuitive paths lead to enlightenment, perceiving ultimate truth via natural phenomena. Therefore, the concept of stripping nature to its core in dry landscape, removing any excess, reveals its essence. Zen monks embraced this by creating gardens, showcasing the universe’s condensed form, where they found their true selves. With the understanding of Zen Buddhism concept in the background, Ryoan-ji garden can be seen with a lot of care given to the arrangements of rocks. The composition of rocks as 7-5-3 (3 groups at the back consisting of 7 rocks altogether, the 7 leads to 5 and then to 3 to the end of the right foreground) was composed intentionally in order to associate the odd numbers to ‘yang’ which were superior compared to even numbers ‘yin’ concept.
Figure 6: Daisen-in Rock garden
Figure 7: Boat on a river of sand
Title: Daisen-in Rock Garden
Designer: Zen monk and garden designer Sōami
Date: 1509, Muromachi period
Location: Daitokuji Temple, Kyoto, Japan
Material: Rock, mosses, gravel, sand
Photo Credit: Artstor
The Daisen-in rock garden exemplifies symbolic use of natural elements, unfolding from north to south with the eastern section holding particular significance.
As shown on figure 6, the two large rocks standing next to each other near the wall suggest a waterfall descending from a high mountain, transforming into a vigorous current coursing through a ravine under a bridge, widening within the enclosed valley, and forming rapids breaking through a dam. In the subsequent image (figure 7), the scene shifts, depicting the torrent evolving into a slow, stately flow, with a prominent rock resembling a boat leisurely drifting in the current on the metaphorical endless sea of gravel, evoking the journey of life. Notably, though the ground appears level, Daisen-in garden impresses with a pronounced sense of depth. The garden space boasts an unusual density, maintaining a continuous composition without interruption. Comprising roughly 100 rocks, contrasting Ryoan-ji’s 15, each rock in Daisen-in garden was meticulously chosen for its evocative shapes or inherent beauty, even bearing individual names, hence accentuating their personal significance to the observers. In contrast, Ryoan-ji’s rocks remain anonymous and less individually distinguished.
Daisen-in and Ryoan-ji gardens are one the strongest examples that respond to the shift of using natural elements as symbolism and understanding their purpose in human life.
Figure 8
Title: The Garden of Shoden-ji temple
Designer: Kobori Enshu
Date: 17th century, Edo Period
Location: Kyoto, Japan
Material: Azalea bushes, gravel
Photo Credit: Artstor
The garden of Shoden-ji temple is another great example portraying the use of natural elements as symbolism and playing a crucial role in defining the purpose of Japanese gardens. Here, instead of rocks, carefully shaped azalea bushes, arranged in a 7-5-3 pattern atop white gravel, mirror the rock arrangement seen in Ryoan-ji garden. This adaptation demonstrates that dry landscape gardens need not exclusively feature rocks; similar vegetative forms can convey analogous conceptual ideals. The azaleas, particularly during spring blossom, symbolize life’s transient nature, echoing broader Zen philosophy on impermanence. Notably, the garden boasts a unique aspect: beyond its enclosing lime-washed earth wall rises Mount Hiei, the highest among Kyoto’s surrounding hills. This illustrates the technique of “borrowed landscape,” integrating distant scenery into the garden’s confined space, imparting an illusion of vastness. Furthermore, the deliberate arrangement of these natural elements cultivates harmony, equilibrium, and serenity within the garden. Throughout different seasons, the vibrant hues of azaleas and background trees harmonize with surrounding elements, balancing the enduring presence of rocks with the fleeting beauty of flowers.
Japan-ness
The evolution of Japanese gardens through the use of nature and symbolism, over the time has created a unique identity for Japanese. Especially, from the introduction of dry landscape/ Zen garden, a clear idea and concept of the purpose of natural elements in designing a garden was established and practiced. This sense of Japan-ness can be absorbed through simplicity, humbleness, careful arrangements of natural symbolisms, themes and cultural value. Japanese gardens are not only visually appealing but it has also become a sacred space where one is able to meditate and focus on awakening one’s inner nature in a world full of desire, attachment, confusion and emotions.
Bibliography
Berthier, François. Reading Zen in the Rocks: The Japanese Dry Landscape Garden. U of Chicago P, 2005.
Cheng, Venerable G. “Zen and Pure Land: A Most Amazing Cultivation Approach.” International Buddhist Society | 國際佛教觀音寺, 24 Nov. 2021, https://buddhisttemple.ca/zen-and-pure-land-a-most-amazing-cultivation-approach/#:~:text=For%20centuries%2C%20the%20mainstream%20practices,of%20Zen%20and%20Pure%20Land%E2%80%9D
Fuji, Mihoyo. “Www.interactiongreen.com.” Zero=Abundance, www.interactiongreen.com/home-2/zero/about-this-site /. Accessed 21 Oct. 2023.
Hayakawa, Masao. The Garden Art of Japan. Weatherhill, [1973], 1977 printing., 1973.
Jr., J. E. The Art of Japan. 1985.
“Motsuji Temple.” 天台宗 別格本山 毛越寺, www.motsuji.or.jp/en/ . Accessed 20 Oct. 2023.
Muso Kokushi; Kokushi Muso (1275 – 1351), Japanese, architect. Saiho-ji; Kokedera; Moss Temple. 1339-1912. Artstor, library.artstor.org/asset/ASAHARAIG_111212444707
Slawson, David A. Secret Teachings in the Art of Japanese Gardens: Design Principles, Aesthetic Values. Kodansha, 1987.
Image Bibliography
Hiromasa, Amasaki. “Niponica NO.26.” Japanese Culture – Web Japan. Accessed December 15, 2023. https://web-japan.org/niponica/niponica26/en/feature/feature02.html.
unknown (unknown nationality, artist). 998-1053. Phoenix Hall [Amida-dō] [Hōō-dō] from across lotus pond of Byodoin, showing lack of walls in wings, Larger Entity:Byodo-in. photographs. https://library.artstor.org/asset/SS33119_33119_10271328.
Hayakawa, Masao. The Garden Art of Japan. Weatherhill, [1973], 1977 printing., 1973
unknown (unknown nationality, artist). Probably second half of 15th Century. Dry stone garden at Ryoanji, view including tree-bark roofed wall, and edging, Larger Entity:Ryoan-ji [Temple of the Dragon at Peace]. rock gardens; Japanese gardens; karesansui. https://library.artstor.org/asset/SS33119_33119_11491996. .
1509-1515. Daisen-in; Great Hermit’s Temple. temple. https://library.artstor.org/asset/ASAHARAIG_111212444690.
1509. Kyoto: Daitoku-ji Temple view Daisen-in Garden Stone garden. https://library.artstor.org/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822003456066.
1268. Kyoto: Shoden-ji Temple view Garden. https://library.artstor.org/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822003456934.
