Introduction:
The Kashmir region is located in the northernmost region of India and has been a melting pot of various cultures throughout history. Previously the term “Kashmir” was used to describe the Kashmir valley situated in between the Pir Panjal Range and the Great Himalayas. Nowadays the term applies to a much larger area that includes Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh, and various other neighboring territories. The region has a unique blend of languages, religions, and cultures as it is bordered by Pakistan, India, and China. Kashmir has had a very interesting history as many empires and dynasties have ruled over the region. Such empires include the British Empire, Mughal Empire, Mauryan Empire, and Kushan Empire. There are also numerous other dynasties in Kashmir’s history such as the Karkota Dynasty, Utpala Dynasty, Shah Mir Dynasty, and the Lohara Dynasty. The name “Kashmir” means desiccated land, as in Sanskrit, Ka = Water and Shimira = desiccate. The region was given this name according to a Hindu story that describes Kashyapa, son of Brahma, draining the great lake and then asking Brahmins to settle there afterwards. In addition to the long history of Hinduism in the region, Kashmir was also a very important center of Buddhism as exemplified by the various Buddhist stupas, monasteries, and various texts produced within the region.
The stone temples littered around Kashmir are an integral part of Asian art. These Kashmiri temples reflect the combination of various regional traditions present in Indian, Buddhist, and Persian art. In addition to taking in various cultural influences from other communities, the Kashmiri temples also had significant influence on later temples built throughout Southeast Asia and India. Renowned for their amazing architecture and intricate exquisite carvings, the Kashmiri temples are renowned examples of Indian temple architecture and continue to be an integral part of religion and tourism throughout the region. One of the most significant features in Kashmir is its unique architecture represented by the various temples and cultural sites still present to this day. In this chapter I will specifically highlight the importance of Kashmir stone architecture and analyze various temple sites to further explore the various qualities visible within the buildings. Unlike other stone architecture present in the surrounding region or elsewhere, Kashmiri stone architecture is renowned for it’s unique blend of various cultures. Furthermore, the main four elements present in the architecture are intricate religious/cultural carvings, impressive designs, local materials, and a high level of durability. Various other characteristics and intrinsic qualities that I will introduce include peristyle, shikhara, presence of water, integration with nature, tapered roofs, symmetrical layouts, and sacred architecture.
In my analysis of Kashmiri stone architecture I will include various images depicting the many qualities present in these temples. Images will include temple plan layouts, intricate carvings, courtyards, and shrines. For example, the intricate stone carvings and visual motifs present often depict Hindu gods and various cultural scenes. While discussing these Kashmiri temples I will include various sites such as Martand sun temple, Awantipora temple, and Wangath temple.
This image is from one of our readings in class and features the Martand Surya Temple located in the Kashmir region. The Martand Surye Temple is considered one of the finest examples of Kashmiri stone temple architecture and is very impressive in size. “Martand” is Sanskrit for Sun and was dedicated to the solar deity in Hinduism called Surya. The temple was constructed in the 8th century AD by Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota Dynasty and was destroyed in the 15th century CE by Sikandar Shah Miri during a period of civil unrest and conflict. The Karkota Dynasty ruled over the Kashmir valley and other neighboring regions throughout the 7th and 8th centuries. The period of rule was characterized by vast cultural advancements, scholarship, economic success, and political expansion. The temple sits on top of a plateau in which you can view the whole entire Kashmir Valley. The building materials were sourced locally and heavily include grey limestone, which is found throughout the region. While looking at the temple from a higher elevation as represented in the lower image, the viewer can notice that the temple has a large rectangular plan that is oriented to the east in accordance to the angle of the sun. Within the outer walls of the temple, there are various courtyards and smaller shrines that are arranged symmetrically in accordance to features of Hinduism. Additionally, the central shrine is very large and almost dominates the surrounding landscape as visible in the image. Another interesting factor within the Martand Surya Temple is the utilization and integration of water. Earlier in history the temple held a large body of water located in front of the central shine. This body of water was believed to have been used for ritual bathing and various other religious practices. The integration of water and the notion of sacredness is highly visible amongst other Kashmiri temples and was a key feature of the Martand Surya Temple. The water was supplied by a spring originating from the nearby waters and included various other channels of water that complimented the surrounding architecture. The temple has gone through various levels of destruction by earthquakes, Muslim conquests, and various other natural disasters.
Figure 2 is from the American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi, and depicts the layout of the Martand Surya Temple. Upon first examination of the image, I was immediately struck by the high level of organization and impressive design undertaken by the builders and architects. As shown in the image, the temple has a colonnaded courtyard with the primary shrine located in the center of the courtyard. The central shrine is surrounded by 84 smaller shrines and the site serves as the largest peristyle example in Kashmir. The various chambers are proportional in size and are perfectly aligned with the outer perimeter of the temple. Furthermore, the primary entrance of the temple is located on the western side of the quadrangle and has the same width of the overall temple. This was done by architects and builders in accordance to Hindu temple architecture. Overall, there are 84 columns which also has a deeper meaning in connection with Hinduism and sacred architecture. The number 84 is the multiple of the number of days in the week with the number of signs in the zodiac. Furthermore, the number 84 can also be interpreted to represent totality.
The third figure shows one of the many intricate carvings represented on the walls of Martand Surye Temple. The carvings within the Kashmir temples are an essential factor to their exceptional beauty and historical significance. This specific carving is one of the most conserved examples still present at the Martand temple and is very impressive in size. The carving is housed in a shrine relief covered by a double pent roof, which is consistent with other details throughout the temple and neighboring sites. Within the carving there are three primary heads depicted: the central face of Vasudeva, accompanied by boar and lion heads that represent Aniruddha and Sankarshana. Located in between the feet of Vasudeva is the Earth goddess named Prithvi. Upon the three primary heads are seven more in the form of rows and is very unique in nature. This representation is known as Vishvarupa and is very rare in Kashmir architecture but makes sense as it is found in earlier Gupta images from Mahura. These carvings assist the notion that the temple is designed to function as a gateway between man and the divine. Religious carvings such as this one were used to help men advance their spiritual knowledge and moksha.
Figure 4 shows the Avantiswami Temple located amongst the Avantipura ruins in Awantipora, India. In the 9th Century CE, the first Utpala ruler named Avantivarman built a series of stone temples along the main road from Srinagar. The Avantiswami Temple is the smaller of the two and is the most preserved of the bunch. The Avantiswami Temple is includes exceptional examples of portrait sculpture and decorative motifs, which are both still present along the various columns and walls still standing today. The pilasters and columns feature various decorative motifs as well as being carved to closely represent the texture of wood. Some of the decorative motifs present in the temple are native to India, while others reflect West Asian influence and various other cultures. Motifs and carvings that are visible include geese, lotuses, mythical creatures, humans, religious icons, birds, flowers, and an array of geometric patterns. The temple shares a variety of similarities with the Martand Temple as shown by the similar layout, materials, and motifs within the carvings. The Avantiswami Temple and the surrounding ruins represent the end of Kashmir stone temple architecture as Muslim conquests would soon halt creative expression and bring mass destruction amongst the many sites.
The Wangath Temple complex is a group of Hindu temples located in Naranag, India. Various temples were built at the site beginning around 137 BCE but the current structure standing today was built in the 8th century CE by Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota dynasty. The cluster of ruins at Wangath are an example of early Karkota temples and served as a primary site for Siva worship. Siva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism and is the supreme being in Shaivism. He is known as the God of Destruction and the Mater of Poison and Medicine. As shown in the image, the ruins of Wangath reflect traditional Kashmiri stone architecture through the utilization of stone walls, domical and overlapping stone ceilings, front and rear chambers, decorative moldings, and pyramidal roofs. The theme of pyramidal roofs throughout Kashmiri stone architecture is visible within Figure 5. I also wanted to include this photo as it does a good job in informing the viewer of the intense terrain these temples were built on. This photo also does a great job in displaying how large these blocks of stone actually were. The size of the stone blocks used throughout Kashmir are much larger than anywhwere else in India. It is an impressive feat and I can only wonder how these workers were able to move these stones and position them so precise that not even a sheet of paper can fit in between. Martand Surye Temple, Avantipora Temples, and many others were built on light slopes of grass land surrounded by mountains, streams, and forest. Not only did these architects choose high elevation due to natural beauty and integration with nature but also chose a higher elevation in order to avoid severe floods. These pyramidal roofs were chosen specifically due to the climates present in the areas. The winters were rough with snowfall and heavy rain being abundant. The pyramidal roof combatted the build up of snow and rain. Furthermore, some architects chose single layered hollow pyramidal roofs due to the auditory effects when chanting mantras. The hollow pyramidal roof amplifies sound within and even returns the mantras as an echo while creating a sense of vibration. Many architectural decisions and details present in the Kashmir temples were chosen to enhance their religious practices such as meditation. Another key quality of Kashmiri stone architecture that is present in the Wangath Temple complex is the practice of building upon earlier temples and monuments. Due to destruction, changing rulers, and environmental threats, a lot of the famous Kashmiri temples were built upon earlier temples and shrines.
Overall, the Kashmir temples discussed and many others are a fine testament to the advanced skills and techniques displayed by the architects and builders responsible for these monuments. Kashmiri stone architecture perfectly reflects the Kashmir valleys rich history and impressive natural environment. It is a shame that many of these monuments were lost over the years to a magnitude of reasons. Asian art is comprised of an array of art styles and techniques, from Asian landscapes and portraits to Asian pottery, woodblock prints, bronze sculptures, and a variety of other traditions. The prevalence and status of Asian art is a testament to the rich cultural traditions of the region and the extensive history. We also learned about the varying external influences on Asian art such as colonialism and war. Furthermore, we also explored how Asian art has evolved over time and greatly influenced other cultures such as America in the late 18th century as Asian art became greatly romanticized in the eyes of the American public. In conclusion, Kashmiri stone architecture is just one of the fine examples that we covered in class throughout the semester.
Reading List:
- Ahmad, Junaid & Samad, Abdul. (2015). Śarda Temple and the Stone Temples of Kashmir in Perspective: A Review Note. Pakistan Heritage. 7. 111-122.
- Pal, Pratapaditya. Art and Architecture of Ancient Kashmir / Edited by Pratapaditya Pal. Bombay: Marg Publications, 1989. Print.
- Bilham, R., Bali, B.S. A ninth century earthquake-induced landslide and flood in the Kashmir Valley, and earthquake damage to Kashmir’s Medieval temples. Bull Earthquake Eng 12, 79–109 (2014).
- Beg, M. Saleem. Sacred Architecture of Kashmir: Language of Identity. Social Scientist 48, no. 7/8 (566-567) (2020): 75–80.
- Bashir Ahmad, Akhtar Alam. Seismic risk reduction through indigenous architecture in Kashmir Valley. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, Volume 21, 110-117 (2017).
- Paray, Abdul. Composite Culture as Reflected in Ancient Art and Architecture of Kashmir. Department of AIHC and Archaeology, IGNTU. Volume 10 Issue 5. May 2021.
- Asif Mohi ud din. An Assessment of Architectural Features of Sugandesha Temple, Kashmir. Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7 (2019). 596-607.
- Ar. Anoop Sharma. Indian Temple Architecture: A case study of Jammu Temples. Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University. International Journal of Science, Environment, and Technology, vol 4, No.5, 2015. 1410-1415.
- Uman Riyaz. Restoration of Martand Sun Temple, Kashmir. Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 8.2 (2020): 973-984.
